African swine fever virus (ASFV) belongs to the Asfarviridae family and the Asfivirus genus. It is the only known DNA virus transmitted by arthropods and the sole member of this virus family. The virus has a linear double-stranded DNA genome, featuring a complex structure and unique biological characteristics. The natural hosts of ASFV are African wild suids, and it is primarily transmitted through soft tick bites, though direct contact can also facilitate transmission. Since its first identification in Kenya in 1921, the virus has spread to multiple countries and regions across Europe, Asia, and the Americas, posing a persistent threat to the global swine industry. African swine fever virus exhibits significant genetic diversity and geographical adaptability, with at least 24 genotypes identified. Different strains vary in virulence, transmission capability, and host range. The virus demonstrates strong environmental stability, tolerating a wide range of pH levels and temperature variations, which contributes to its spread and persistence.

The African swine fever virus particle has a complex structure, exhibiting icosahedral symmetry with a diameter of approximately 200 nm, making it one of the largest known animal viruses. The mature virion consists of multiple layers from the inside out: the innermost layer is a nucleoprotein core formed by the viral genomic DNA and core proteins; surrounding this is a protein matrix layer encoded by the virus, which plays a crucial role in maintaining virion stability; the outermost layer is an envelope composed of multiple lipid membranes, containing various structural proteins encoded by the virus. Notably, ASFV’s envelope structure is unique, comprising multiple membrane layers derived from the host cell’s internal membrane system. The viral genome is approximately 170–190 kb in length, containing 150–167 open reading frames that encode over 160 proteins, including structural proteins, enzymes, and immunomodulatory proteins. Major structural proteins on the virion surface include p72, p54, and p30, among which p72 is the primary component of the viral capsid and contains key antigenic determinants, making it a major target for serological testing. The virus completes its replication and assembly within viral factories in the host cell cytoplasm, a distinctive cytoplasmic replication mechanism that sets it apart from most other DNA viruses, which replicate in the nucleus.

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