Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) belongs to the family Herpesviridae and the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae. It is an enveloped virus with a double-stranded DNA genome. This virus is widely distributed globally, with serological studies indicating that approximately two-thirds to over 90% of the adult population has been infected with HSV-1. HSV-1 infection is characterized by lifelong persistence. The virus is primarily transmitted through close contact, particularly via oral secretions containing the virus. During latency, the viral genome exists as a circular episome within the nuclei of neurons, expressing only a limited set of latency-associated transcripts (LATs) and producing almost no viral proteins. Upon specific triggers (such as immunosuppression or stress), the virus can reactivate, entering the lytic replication cycle to produce new progeny virions. These virions are transported along neuronal axons to peripheral sites, leading to viral shedding or recurrence.  

The HSV-1 virion has a complex structure, featuring the typical multilayered architecture of herpesviruses, with a diameter of approximately 150–200 nm. From the inside out, it consists of four main components: the core, capsid, tegument, and envelope. The innermost core comprises the linear double-stranded DNA genome and core proteins. The HSV-1 genome is large, spanning about 152 kb, and encodes at least 74 different proteins as well as various non-coding RNAs. The genome is enclosed within an icosahedral nucleocapsid composed of 162 capsomeres and measuring approximately 125 nm in diameter. This capsid is assembled from major capsid proteins such as VP5, VP19C, and VP23. Surrounding the nucleocapsid is the tegument, an amorphous, protein-rich layer of uneven thickness. It contains multiple proteins critical for early stages of viral replication, including the transcriptional activator VP16 and tegument proteins UL36 and UL37, which are involved in viral uncoating. The outermost layer is a lipid bilayer envelope derived from the host cell's nuclear membrane, embedded with at least 12 different viral glycoprotein spikes, such as gB, gC, gD, and gH/gL. These glycoproteins play essential roles in viral attachment, fusion with the host cell membrane, and intercellular spread. They are also the primary targets of the host's neutralizing antibody response.  

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