Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a significant member of the genus Hepacivirus within the family Flaviviridae and is one of the primary pathogens responsible for chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Since its discovery in 1989, HCV has attracted considerable attention due to its high genetic diversity and capacity for variation. According to estimates from the World Health Organization, approximately 58 million people worldwide are living with chronic HCV infection. HCV is primarily transmitted through blood, and its infection is often insidious, with most individuals showing no obvious symptoms during the initial stages. However, the virus can persist and replicate within the host, leading to chronic progressive liver damage. As a typical RNA virus, HCV relies on its RNA polymerase during replication. This enzyme lacks proofreading capability, resulting in significant heterogeneity in the viral genome and the emergence of numerous genotypes and subtypes.

The hepatitis C virus particle is spherical, with a diameter of approximately 55–65 nm. Its structure primarily consists of the viral core, capsid, and envelope. The viral core is composed of the viral genomic RNA and core proteins. In addition to encapsulating the genome to form the nucleocapsid, core proteins are involved in regulating host cell metabolism and immune responses. The HCV genome is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA, approximately 9.6 kb in length, containing a single open reading frame that encodes a polyprotein precursor of about 3,000 amino acids. This precursor is cleaved by host and viral proteases to produce at least 10 mature viral proteins, including three structural proteins and seven nonstructural proteins. Among these, the envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2 form heterodimers embedded in the viral envelope, mediating viral attachment to host cell receptors and membrane fusion. They are also the primary targets of neutralizing antibodies. Nonstructural proteins are primarily involved in viral genome replication and polyprotein processing. Notably, HCV particles are closely associated with host low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), often existing as "lipoviral particles." This unique lipid coating helps the virus evade host immune clearance and facilitates infection.

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